McGee v. A C & S, Inc.

HThe issue presented in this case is whether loss of enjoyment of life is recoverable as a separate element of general damages that may be included as a separate item on a jury verdict form. For the reasons that follow, we hold that loss of enjoyment of life is recoverable as a separate element of general damages that may be included as a separate item on a jury verdict form and find that the court of appeal erred in holding that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life is erroneous as a matter of law. Therefore, we reverse the court of appeal’s ruling granting the motion in limine and reinstate the district court’s ruling denying the motion in limine.

FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY

Plaintiffs, the widow and children of James Edward McGee, filed the instant wrongful death and survival actions against many defendants, including James Edward McGee’s former employers and manufacturers of asbestos-containing products used during his employment (collectively “defendants”), seeking to recover 12damages for injuries sustained as a result of James Edward McGee’s exposure to asbestos, from which he died on January 28, 2000.

In their petition, plaintiffs sought damages for, among other things, James Edward McGee’s loss of enjoyment of life. Thereafter, defendants filed a motion in limine seeking to preclude plaintiffs from asserting a claim for loss of enjoyment of life. At the hearing on the motion, counsel for plaintiffs stated that plaintiffs were entitled to put on evidence and to have the jury give them an award for loss of enjoyment of life. Defense counsel stated that loss of enjoyment of life was a part of the general damage award and was not its own separate category of damages, but counsel for plaintiffs rebutted that loss of enjoyment of life was a separate item of damages. The district court remarked that it had allowed a separate category for loss of enjoyment of life in previous cases and denied defendants’ motion in limine.

Defendants applied for supervisory writs, which the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal granted. In reviewing the district court’s ruling, the court of appeal stated that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life was erroneous as a matter of law and stated that expert testimony concerning loss of enjoyment of life was inadmissible, citing its decision in Mistich v. Volkswagen of Germany, Inc., 94-0226, p. 5 (La App. 4 Cir. 6/25/97), 698 So.2d 47, 51. Accordingly, the court of appeal reversed the district court and granted defendants’ motion in limine to prohibit plaintiffs from asserting a claim for loss of enjoyment of life. From that decision, plaintiffs applied for supervisory writs to this court, stating that the court of appeal erred in reversing the district court and holding that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life is erroneous as a matter of law. We granted plaintiffs’ writ application to determine whether loss of enjoyment of life is recoverable as a separate element of general damages that may be reflected as a line item on a jury verdict form.

| «DISCUSSION

Loss of enjoyment of life, sometimes known as hedonic damages, refers to the detrimental alterations of a person’s life or lifestyle or a person’s inability to participate in the activities or pleasures of life that were formerly enjoyed. See Day v. Ouachita Parish Sch. Bd., 35,831, p. 8 (La.App. 2 Cir. 8/8/02), 823 So.2d 1039, 1044.

In Louisiana, delictual actions are governed by La. C.C. art. 2315, which states that “[ejvery act of man that causes damage to another obliges him by whose fault it happened to repair it.” Thus, under La. C.C. art. 2315, a tortfeasor must compensate a tort victim for all of the damages occasioned by his act. The term “damages” refers to “pecuniary compensation, recompense, or satisfaction for an injury sustained.” Fogle v. Feazel, 201 La. 899, 909, 10 So.2d 695, 698 (1942). In the delictual context, La. C.C. art. 2315 authorizes compensatory damages. Compensatory damages encompass those damages “designed to place the plaintiff in the position in which he would have been if the tort had not been committed.” Frank L. Maraist & Thomas C. Galligan, Jr., LOUISIANA TORT LAW § 7-1 (Miehie 1996) (footnotes omitted).

Compensatory damages are further divided into the broad categories of special damages and general damages. Special damages are those which have a “ready market value,” such that the amount of the damages theoretically may be determined with relative certainty, including medical expenses and lost wages, while general damages are inherently speculative and cannot be calculated with mathematical certainty. Id. § 7-2 (footnotes omitted).

This court has previously defined general damages as “those which may not be fixed with any degree of pecuniary exactitude but which, instead, involve mental or physical pain or suffering, inconvenience, the loss of gratification of intellectual or Lphysical enjoyment, or other losses of life or life-style which cannot really be measured definitively in terms of money.” Duncan v. Kansas City S. R.R., 00-0066, p. 13 (La.10/30/00), 773 So.2d 670, 682; Boswell v. Roy O. Martin Lumber Co., Inc., 363 So.2d 506, 507 (La.1978); Anderson v. Welding Testing Lab., Inc., 304 So.2d 351, 352 (La.1974).

Loss of enjoyment of life falls within the definition of general damages because it involves the quality of a person’s life, which is inherently speculative and cannot be measured definitively in terms of money. “The loss of gratification of intellectual or physical enjoyment” included in the definition of general damages directly results from a person’s “inability to participate in the activities or pleasures of life that a person formerly enjoyed” as set forth in the definition of loss of enjoyment of life. Similarly, “the loss of life or life-style” included in the definition of general damages is substantially similar to the “detrimental alteration of a person’s life or lifestyle” as included in the definition of loss of enjoyment of life. Thus, loss of enjoyment of life is clearly encompassed within “the loss of gratification of intellectual or physical enjoyment, or other losses of life or life-style” component of this court’s existing definition of general damages.

La. C.C. art. 2315 authorizes a tort victim to be compensated for the damage sustained as a result of the delict, including those for loss of enjoyment of life, if proven. Moreover, this court has clearly defined general damages to include loss of enjoyment of life. Consequently, loss of enjoyment of life is a compensable component of general damages under both La. C.C. art. 2315 and this court’s existing definition of general damages. Therefore, the only remaining issue is whether loss of enjoyment of life may be separated from other elements of general damages, such as mental and physical pain and suffering, and whether that separation may be | ¿reflected by having a line for loss of enjoyment of life on a jury verdict form. See Joseph v. Broussard Rice Mill, Inc., 00-0628, p. 1 (La.10/30/00), 772 So.2d 94, 106-107 (Victory, J., assigning additional reasons) (stating “this Court has never squarely addressed the issue of awarding hedonic damages for loss of enjoyment of life as a separate element of damages”).

As established above, loss of enjoyment of life is a component of general damages and therefore loss of enjoyment of life is not separate and distinct from general damages. Nevertheless, general damages in Louisiana are routinely dissected. Courts commonly list different elements of general damages, including mental anguish and physical pain and suffering, both past and future, separately. In addition, general damages for permanent scarring and/or disfigurement are often listed separately. See, e.g., Joseph, 00-0628 at p. 17 (La.10/30/00), 772 So.2d at 106-107, n. 6; Degruise v. Houma Courier Newspaper Corp., 95-1862, p. 9 (La.11/25/96), 683 So.2d 689, 694. Thus, allowing a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life would not offend the existing concept of general damages and would reflect the accepted method of listing elements of general damages separately.

Moreover, loss of enjoyment of life is conceptually distinct from other components of general damages, including pain and suffering. Pain and suffering, both physical and mental, refers to the pain, discomfort, inconvenience, anguish, and emotional trauma that accompanies an injury. Loss of enjoyment of life, in comparison, refers to detrimental alterations of the person’s life or lifestyle or the person’s inability to participate in the activities or pleasures of life that were formerly enjoyed prior to the injury. In contrast to pain and suffering, whether or not a plaintiff experiences a detrimental lifestyle change depends on both the nature and severity of the injury and the lifestyle of the plaintiff prior to the injury.

The First Circuit Court of Appeal, in Matos v. Clarendon Nat’l Ins. Co., 00-2814, p. 9 (La App. 1 Cir. 2/15/02), 808 So.2d 841, 848, described the difference between pain and suffering and loss of enjoyment of life as follows:

The same injuries may affect people differently. A quiet, reclusive person with a desk job may have pain and suffering from losing a leg. He would have a permanent disability but he would be able to continue work. He may have some loss of enjoyment of life but not to the extent that person who liked to hike, hunt or play tennis would. A person with a bad back and grown children, who does not do heavy lifting, may not lose as much enjoyment of life as someone with young children who cannot play “horse” or enjoy the squeals of a young child being tossed into the air. Life is much more than simple toil and sometimes the greatest pleasures come from the simplest things.

Consider, for example, two boys, one athletic and the other artistic, who are both involved in an accident and suffer similar injuries. Presumably, each boy should be awarded a similar quantum of damages for pain and suffering. However, the same injury may affect the boys very differently. The artist’s lifestyle was not drastically altered by the accident, as he was able to resume his artistic activities after the accident, whereas the athlete’s lifestyle is altered significantly, as he has to resign from his team and can no longer participate in athletics. Arguably, the athlete may be entitled to a greater pain and suffering award if he can demonstrate his mental anguish occasioned by the accident and its consequences. The athlete is damaged, however, well beyond his mental anguish over not being able to participate in athletics because now the athlete is forced to drastically alter his lifestyle as a result of his accident. The athlete is no longer able to participate in athletics, in competition or at practice, and has to find another avocation to fill his leisure time. Moreover, he no longer spends a significant amount of time with his teammates and is forced to seek out new friends. These detrimental changes in lifestyle go uncompensated in an award for pain and suffering. Under these circumstances, the drastic lifestyle change required of the athlete, as compared with the artist, warrants an additional award for 17the athlete’s loss of enjoyment of life. To ignore the athlete’s change in lifestyle and to award each boy roughly the same quantum of damages because each experienced similar pain and suffering would fail to compensate the athlete for all of his damage.

Given the conceptual difference between pain and suffering and loss of enjoyment of life, a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life is warranted and is not duplicative of the award for pain and suffering, if the damages resulting from loss of enjoyment of life are sufficiently proven. When given the proper jury instructions, jurors can comprehend the difference between the pain and suffering of being in a hospital, undergoing treatment, etc. and the loss of enjoyment of life that occurs because the injured party can no longer participate in a vocation or avocation that the party enjoys.

A majority of the lower courts have supported this position by allowing separate awards for loss of enjoyment of life. The First, Second, Third, and Fifth Circuit Courts of Appeal have held that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life is com-pensable when proven, while only the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal has held that such an award is erroneous as a matter of law.

The Third Circuit Court of Appeal first recognized a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life in Andrews v. Mosley Well Serv., 514 So.2d 491, 498-99 (La.App. 3 Cir.1987), after the jury awarded the plaintiff $75,000 for loss of enjoyment of life. On appeal, the defendants contended that as a matter of law, loss of enjoyment of life had no separate identity as a com-pensable item of general damages and that therefore such an award was duplicative. The Third Circuit Court of Appeal rejected defendants’ argument and upheld the award in part because it found that the district court fully explained what loss of enjoyment of life meant and how it differed from pain and suffering in its instructions.

IsSince Andrews, the Third Circuit Court of Appeal has reiterated its holding that loss of enjoyment of life can be a separate element of general damages. See Richard v. Teague, 92-17, p. (La.App. 3 Cir. 5/4/94), 636 So.2d 1160, 1174; Knepper v. Robin, 99-95, pp. 13-15 (La.App. 3 Cir. 11/17/99), 745 So.2d 1248, 1256-1257; Basco v. Liberty Mut. Ins. Co., 05-0143, pp. 9-14 (La.App. 3 Cir. 8/17/05), 909 So.2d 660, 665-68.

In addition, the First Circuit Court of Appeal has consistently held that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate item of damages independent from pain and suffering. In re Medical Review Panel on Behalf of Laurent, 94,1661, p. 13 (La.App. 1 Cir. 6/23/95), 657 So.2d 713, 722 (upholding an award for loss of enjoyment of life as warranted by the evidence, “[c]onsider-ing the fact that ‘loss of enjoyment of life’ can be a separate item of damages”); Lemaire v. CIBA-GEIGY Corp., 99-1809, pp. 20-21 (La.App. 1 Cir. 6/22/01), 793 So.2d 336, 352 (upholding a general damage award that included a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life, stating that “[t]his court has previously held that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate item of damages and independent from physical pain and suffering”); Matos v. Clarendon Nat’l Ins. Co., 00-2814, pp. 7-10 (La App. 1 Cir. 2/15/02), 808 So.2d 841, 847-848 (upholding an award for loss of enjoyment of life because the district court fully explained what loss of enjoyment of life meant and how it differed from pain and suffering and because the plaintiff was deprived of many of the enjoyments of life and stating that the First Circuit recognizes loss of enjoyment of life as a separate and independent item of damages); Levy v.Bayou Ind. Maint. Servs., Inc., 03-0037, pp. 18-19 (La.App. 1 Cir. 9/26/03), 855 So.2d 968, 980-81 (upholding the award for loss of enjoyment of life as being based in the record and “not[ing] that this court has consistently recognized an award for loss of enjoyment of life as a separate and independent item of|9damages”).

Similarly, the Second Circuit Court of Appeal has upheld separate awards for loss of enjoyment of life. Varnell v. Louisiana Tech Univ., 30,260, pp. 9-10 (La. App. 2 Cir. 2/25/98), 709 So.2d 890, 896 (stating that “[tjaken as a whole, the record supports the District Court’s award of damages for loss of enjoyment of life as a separate element from the rest of general damages”); Day v. Ouachita Parish Sch. Bd., 35,831, pp. 8-9 (La.App. 2 Cir. 8/8/02), 823 So.2d 1039, 1044 (upholding a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life based on the record and stating that “[a] plaintiff is entitled to recover damages for loss of enjoyment of life if he proves that his lifestyle was detrimentally altered or if he was forced to give up activities because of his injury”); Bruce v. State Farm Ins. Co., 03-37704, pp. 16-17 (La.App. 2 Cir. 10/29/03), 859 So.2d 296, 306 (upholding a separate award of damages for loss of enjoyment of life as being neither excessive nor duplicative and stating that loss of enjoyment of life is a compensable element of general damages).

The Fifth Circuit has likewise followed the other circuits in holding that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate element of compensable general damages. Stevenson v. Louisiana Patient’s Comp. Fund, 97-709, p. 6 (La.App. 5 Cir. 4/9/98), 710 So.2d 1178, 1182 (recognizing “that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate element of com-pensable general damages which must be determined by the trial judge” and rejecting defendant’s “contention that, as a matter of law, the option of ‘loss of capacity to enjoy life’ should not have been provided to the jury”); Hebert v. Old Republic Ins. Co., 01-355, p. 19 (La.App. 5 Cir. 1/29/02), 807 So.2d 1114, 1128 (upholding the award for loss of enjoyment of life as being supported in the record and stating that “[t]he jurisprudence recognizes that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate element of compensable general damages”); Poche v. Allstate Ins. Co., 04-1058,1 pp. 12-13 (La. App. 5 Cir. 3/1/05), 900 So.2d 55, 62-63 (rejecting defendant’s contention that loss of enjoyment of life should not have been listed on the jury verdict sheet as a separate element of damages and finding that the award for loss of enjoyment of life was not duplicative of the award for permanent physical impairment).

In contrast, the jurisprudential development from the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal has diverged from that of the other circuits. The Fourth Circuit has declined to follow the other circuits and remains the only circuit in Louisiana to have declared a separate recovery for loss of enjoyment of life erroneous as a matter of law.

In one decision rendered by the Fourth Circuit, Bernard v. Royal Ins., Co., 586 So.2d 607, 619 (La. 4 Cir.1991), however, the court affirmed a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life. Subsequently, in the context of maritime law, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal held that compensation for loss of enjoyment of life was inherently duplicative of damages for physical and mental pain and suffering because the plaintiffs’ loss of enjoyment of life constituted the basis of the mental and physical pain and suffering. Koepp v. Sea-Land Serv., Inc., 93-2562, p. 16 (La. App. 4 Cir. 11/17/94), 645 So.2d 1269, 1278.

Then, in Smith v. Juneau, 95-0724, pp. 37-39 (La.App. 4 Cir. 4/9/97), 692 So.2d 1365, 1383-84, the Fourth Circuit distinguished its holding in Koepp partly on the basis that Koepp was decided under federal maritime law and instead adopted a case-by-case approach for determining whether an award for loss of enjoyment of life is duplicative. In Smith, the Fourth Circuit examined the record and determined that the district court did not instruct the jurors as to the differences in the various elements of damages listed on the jury verdict form. Id. Additionally, the court of appeal found that the record contained no evidence to substantiate a finding that loss of enjoyment of life corn-prised a separate element of damages from pain and suffering. Id.

Thereafter, in Mistich v. Volkswagen of Germany, Inc., 94-0226, p. 5 (La App. 4th Cir. 6/25/97), 698 So.2d 47, 51, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeal declared a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life erroneous as a matter of law and further stated that the court “conelude[s] that there is no competent evidence in the record to support this award even if it were a legitimate award in the first place.” Since Mistich, the Fourth Circuit has reiterated its holding that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life was erroneous as a matter of law in Brown v. Southern Baptist Hosp., 96-1990, pp. 16-17 (La.App. 4 Cir. 3/11/98), 715 So.2d 423, 433-34, and again in Washington v. Aetna Life Ins. Co., 04-0135, pp. 23-25 (La.App. 4 Cir. 10/13/04), 886 So.2d 572, 586-87.

However, we reject the Fourth Circuit’s conclusion that a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life is erroneous as a matter of law. Although we are mindful that there is a conflict among the state and federal courts nationwide on this issue, we agree with the courts, including the Louisiana First, Second, Third, and Fifth Circuit Courts of Appeal, that have held loss of enjoyment of life to be a separate compen-sable element of general damages. We conclude that loss of enjoyment of life constitutes damage that is compensable under La. C.C. art. 2315 and accordingly that the jury may be allowed to give a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life. Nevertheless, whether or not loss of enjoyment of life is recoverable depends on the particular facts of the case, and should be left to the district court’s discretion on a case-by-case analysis.

Furthermore, although a separate award for loss of enjoyment of life may be 1 ^recoverable by the primary tort victim for the loss of enjoyment of life sustained during the victim’s lifetime, it is not recoverable by the primary tort victim’s family members who are eligible to recover for loss of consortium, service and society under La. C.C. art. 2315(B). Loss of consortium is a harm to relational interest which occurs when the other party to the relationship suffers physical harm (invasion of an interest or personality). Ferrell v. Fireman’s Fund Ins. Co., 96-3028, p. 8 (La.7/1/97), 696 So.2d 569, 574. Thus, under La. C.C. art. 2315(B), family members of the primary tort victim have an action, loss of consortium, that will compensate them for their diminished relationship with the primary tort victim. A family member’s detrimental alteration in lifestyle, i.e. loss of enjoyment of life, re-suits from the diminished relationship with the primary tort victim and therefore is already compensated with an award for loss of consortium. Hence, a wife’s claim that she is unable to engage in activities that she formerly enjoyed prior to her husband’s injury, such as taking vacations, attending sporting events, or dancing, is compensated under loss of consortium and need not be compensated again under loss of enjoyment of life. Allowing family members to recover for both their loss of consortium and their loss of enjoyment of life would be duplicative and would not be authorized by La. C.C. art. 2315(B).

Turning to the instant case, we note that it arises in the context of wrongful death and survival actions. Because this issue is being resolved on a motion in limine and in advance of trial, it is unclear whether plaintiffs, the widow and children of James Edward McGee, are attempting to assert a claim for their own loss of enjoyment of life caused by James Edward McGee’s illness under the wrongful death action or whether plaintiffs are attempting to assert James Edward McGee’s claim for his own loss of enjoyment of life under the survival action. Thus, we must examine 114whether loss of enjoyment of life is recoverable in wrongful death and survival actions.

In determining whether plaintiffs may assert a claim for loss of enjoyment of life in either a survival or wrongful death context, we begin with the premise that although both actions arise from a common tort, survival and wrongful death actions are separate and distinct. Taylor v. Giddens, 618 So.2d 834, 840 (La.1993). The survival action comes into existence simultaneously with the existence of the tort and is transmitted to beneficiaries upon the victim’s death. Id. The survival action permits recovery only for the damages suffered by the victim from the time of injury to the moment of death. Id. It is in the nature of a succession right. Id. On the other hand, the wrongful death action does not arise until the victim dies and it compensates the beneficiaries for then-own injuries which they suffer from the moment of the victim’s death and thereafter. Id. In addition, a wrongful death claim is like a loss of consortium claim insofar as it clearly compensates the beneficiaries for their own injuries, separate and distinct from the primary victim’s injuries. Landry v. Avondale Indus., Inc., 03-0719, p. 10 (La.12/3/03), 864 So.2d 117, 126.

Since we have determined that recovery is precluded for the loss of enjoyment of life suffered by the primary victim’s family members as it is duplicative of their loss of consortium claim, we likewise conclude that recovery is precluded for the loss of enjoyment of life suffered by the primary victim’s family members as it is duplicative of their wrongful death claim. Therefore, we find that plaintiffs are limited to asserting James Edward McGee’s loss of enjoyment of life during his lifetime under the survival action, and are precluded from asserting their own loss of enjoyment of life caused by James Edward McGee’s illness.

Accordingly, we conclude that the court of appeal erred in holding that loss of | ^enjoyment of life is erroneous as a matter of law. Instead, we find that loss of enjoyment of life is a separate compensa-ble element of general damages that the jury may award separately from pain and suffering. However, plaintiffs may only assert a claim for the loss of enjoyment of life sustained by James Edward McGee, the primary tort victim, during his lifetime.

DECREE

For all the above reasons, we find that loss of enjoyment of life may be recoverable as a separate element of general damages that may be included on a jury verdict form. Therefore, we reverse the court of appeal’s ruling granting the motion in limine and reinstate the district court’s ruling denying the motion in li-mine to preclude plaintiffs from asserting a claim for loss of enjoyment of life.

REVERSED.

VICTORY and WEIMER, JJ„ dissent and assign reasons.

KNOLL, J., additionally concurs with reasons. ■

. The court stated:

The size of the various general damages reflect the jury’s reaction to the detailed, necessarily gruesome medical testimony which was not rebutted. It is an understatement to say that Ms. Bernard has suffered and will suffer the ultimate amount of pain. The course of her medical treatment caused, rather than relieved, pain and re-suited in utter frustration and false hopes for improvement. There is no guideline to gauge compensation for general damages. This case far transcends one crushed leg. We are confronted with a formerly healthy, 24-year-old college graduate whose life has been destroyed and who will live as a physical and mental cripple, inside a pain-ridden body, for the rest of her 47.6 year life expectancy.

We affirm the jury's award of $4,000,000 for past and future pain and mental anguish, and $25,000 for loss of enjoyment of life.

. The Fourth Circuit explained:

The plaintiff is entitled to receive compensation for the physical effects which impair his ability to engage in life enjoying activities; plaintiff is also entitled to receive compensation for the mental effects which impair his ability to engage in life enjoying activities. Plaintiff is not entitled to receive compensation for physical and mental effects of the injury plus compensation for loss of enjoyment of life, for loss of enjoyment of life constitutes the basis for the physical and mental components.

. Courts across the country have taken varied approaches, and as many states' highest courts have yet to consider the issue of loss of enjoyment of life, the trend nationwide remains unclear. Nevertheless, states that have weighed in are sometimes either constrained or empowered to disallow or to allow a separate recovery for loss of enjoyment of life by their specific statutory scheme for tort, wrongful death, and survival actions. For instance, the Supreme Court of New Hampshire found that its wrongful death statute, allowing recovery for "the probable duration of his life but for his injury,” authorized a separate award for decedent’s loss of enjoyment of life, i.e. decedent’s inability to carry on and enjoy life as if he would have lived. Marcotte v. Timberlane/Hampstead. Sch. Dist., 143 N.H. 331, 733 A.2d 394, 399 (1999). Similarly, the Supreme Court of Connecticut has “long held that loss of life’s enjoyments is compensable in personal injuiy and wrongful death cases,” Mather v. Griffin Hosp., 207 Conn. 125, 540 A.2d 666, 678 (1988), while the Supreme Court of South Carolina has held that loss of enjoyment of life and pain and suffering are separately compensable elements of damage. Boon v. Blackwell, 343 S.C. 498, 541 S.E.2d 242, 244 (2001). In contrast, the Supreme Court of Nebraska has held that loss of enjoyment of life is not a separate category of damages but may be considered as an element of pain and suffering and/or disability. Anderson v. Nebraska Dep't of Soc. Serv., 248 Neb. 651, 538 N.W.2d 732, 739 (1995). The Supreme Court of Washington, however, has upheld a jury instruction regarding plaintiffs loss of opportunity to become a professional dancer only because the court found that it did not mislead the jury or foster a double recovery in that particular case. Kirk v. WSU, 109 Wash.2d 448, 746 P.2d 285, 293 (1987).